Vinod
Vincent Rajesh
Assistant
Professor of History
Tirunelveli
– 627012
The orientation of early human-beingstowards
learning caused prospective changes and movement in their lives. When they
started learning the secrets of nature, it was the first step towards building
of a civilization.[1]
The complex tools evolved in the civilizational process caused division of
labor, and consequently, surplus production. Variously skilled persons created
by virtue of learning were pooled in the cities. One among the skilled personnel
was the priests who evolved ideasrequired for deriving the loyalty of almost
every section of the societyin correspondence with the demands of the tools.[2]
They emerged at the top of the social ladder and remained unquestioned till
alternative ideology was offered by the heterodox sects. The role of
materialist and secular ideas also contributed in shaping the social
configuration.[3]The
dialectical process in which these ideas clashed – homogenous in one side and
the heterodox and materialist in the other –tended to guide the course of the
socio-political life of the people. Nevertheless it was not able to thoroughly dethrone
the cultural elite from its position.
The
heterodox sects communicated their ideas in the vernacular dialect. The Devabasha status claimed by the language
of the cultural elite had its own attraction and even Mahayana form of Buddhism
– if not on that count for other reasons –
adopted Sanskrit as the medium of communication. The heterodox sects
introduceda formalkind of education or education of higher level found
expressionin the formation of universities like Nalanda, Vikramsila and
Odantapura and tried their best to democratize it.In places where the heterodox
sects did not find following, access to reading and writing was the perquisite
of only a few who determined even what others can listen.[4]
In such a context and further with the decline of heterodox sects, the question
of ‘progressivity’ was but a logical question. Without reading, writing and
listening,the shaping up of the demands and expectations of communities and
individuals in the broader society cannot be thought about.[5]
As a
consequence, a subjective class of people who contributed for the welfare of
the society at the cost of their welfare without being conscious of their
position in the social orderwas created. Limitations of these kinds further
undermined the coming together of the castes and contributed for the easy
entrance of foreign military powers. That in turn contributed for the diversity
among the inhabitants of the landscape and provocation of debates pertaining to
faith. The second Bhakthi movement and Sufi traditions that evolved in the north
provided cushion for the harmonious blending of the diversity and had wide reach
among the common people. The resultant ideas possibly were reflected in the
curriculum of the madrasas and vidhyalayas,for the fabric of communal
harmony at the level of people remained undisturbed. If the roots of ‘national
integration’ could be traced, the location of that was found here.
Paradoxically, while entering into a
time period categorized as ‘modern’,the spirit of learning that was offered in
the name of ‘scientific education’ not only delinked itself from the
diversified nature of the society but alsodepartedfrom the idea of ‘knowledge
for knowledge sake’.A favorable climate that emerged during the Bhakthi
movement and the Mughal rule was shattered to pieces. The colonial administration ignored the seeds
of the ‘surprise element’ expressed by the agents of colonialism – such as
Warren Hastings – who were moved by the plentitude of Madrasas and Vidhyalayas
that existed in the landscape of Bengal inhabited by ordinary people prior to
their arrival. Once the nation became free from colonial oppression, the
democratic republic that was born realized the responsibility of mending the
damages caused by the British policy before it.
In such a backdrop, the present
study is an attempt to view the dynamics of education within the purview of
social history.[6]Since
the domain of social history deals more with particular issues than general
overview, a broader canvas based on economy has been drawn to place the arguments.Over
and above all these, the broader scope of the title allows onlyhandlingof
certain significant episodes in the history of India
The Betrayal of Modernity
The
arrival of the Europeans with the fruits of renaissance was expected to lead a
nation like India India India Europe .[7]They
lagged behind in areas of science and technologyand failed to participate in
the global developments of that time. When the motive of the colonialists was
only to exploit the nation optimally, their domineering attitude failed to
capture the real abilities of the people of the subject nation. Therefore, they
used every opportunity including that of providing education for justification
of their rule.
As far the education of the natives
was concerned that became the responsibility of the colonialist by virtue of
collecting taxes and in the initial phase, there were some positive signs in
the direction of choosing Indian system of knowledge for the instruction of the
natives. The surprise of Warren Hastings, and other colonialists on the
intellectual past of the natives was shared by serious scholars of western
origin who preferred to call themselves Royal Asiatics – also popularly known
as Orientalists. They had a vision plan that would have contributed for the
rediscovery of the natives’ history. However in a debate on ‘the themes of
education for the purpose of instruction’ at the Governor General’s Council
after the introduction of the Charter Act of 1833 that directed to spend one
lakh rupees for the education of the natives, the Utilitarian thinkers
represented by Thomas Macaulay favored English education and they emerged
successful against the Orientalists.
The
Utilitarian thinkers had two major motives while espousing their argument in
favor of English education – ‘divide and rule’ and ‘infusing European taste’.
The latter stood as the logical sequence of the former, for the separation of
identities of the religious groups was stressed while the solution of all ills
was identified as departing from the flawed identity attributed by religion
towards a common identity offered by the British administration through
Education. Towing this line of ideology, James Mill wrote the official
historyof India
The
learning of occidental ideas through English language brought the privileged section
of the society close to the Europeans.The education thus provided better access
to political power and economic resources, and thereby, created a class of
people who became the first middle class in this nation. The English people and
the Indian learned class competed in the same platform for the limited
opportunity offered by the government.In outlook it appeared like elevating the
meritoriousnatives at par with the Europeans. In reality it was an attempt to denude
the colorful diversity of the country.Sadly the communities benefited by the
policies of the British government asserted their identities while believing
that their interests are different and they counter pose each other. Thepartition
of the country into India
and Pakistan
New Light after Independence
The rectification of the
problems created by the British administration, and the poor financial
resources of the state were the chief challenges that appeared before the leaders
of free India
As said already, the leaders were
assuming power in a chaotic situation not only characterized by communalism but
also by language based separatist movements. The nature of the systems –
including that of education – inherited
from the British was such that, it reinforced the ugly facets of caste,
religion and other divisive factors as rightly pointed out by eminent
sociologist M.N. Srinivas as character of Indian modernity. With utmost care
and verve, they rectified the defects made in the history curriculum with
inputs coming from the ‘Nationalist Historians’ and liberated the medieval
period of Indian history from darker projections and placed strong arguments
tracing the common cultural roots from the ancient past despite language based
differences. At the same time, they did not attempt to redefine the character
of minority institutions and in reality provided more scope for their free
growth.
Sincere effort in diagnosing the
ills of the system was manifested in the appointment of Kothari Commission.
While reviewing the educational situation in India
Globalization and Thereafter
Globalization
threw another set of challenge to the integrative character of higher
education. The man power created at the cost of Indian public fund was expected
to serve the needs and demands of the world. It lapsed from the Baconian
philosophy and attempted to link higher education with the market. The
implementation of globalization in India
The
effect of accelerated demand in science and technology caused shock waves in
social sciences and humanities. At the first hand, question of whether at all
academic pursuit of these would any more be useful for individuals and society
was debated. The talented cream of youth that chose between science and social
science earlier predominantly shifted to science. In the void that emerged, new
interpretations not so much guided by scientific approach emerged in social
sciences particularly in the field of history. The global powers that viewed
India as a potential market, started showing interest in learning the
socio-cultural and political life of the people and for them multiplicity of
interpretations only enhanced understanding in depth. Similarly, the scholarly
contributions of the Marxist social scientists embarrassed these powers since
ideological viewpoints were not compatible with each other. Therefore they were
also looking for new interpretations.
Interpretations
can be of any type. It is part and parcel of academic freedom. It may also be
purposive. An effective democracy has to necessarily provide platform for free
expression of one’s view point. But new interpretations and free expression
shall not violate the grammar of a discipline. ‘Facts of past’ form the chief
domain of history. The new interpretations made by certain scholars[14]
fabricated certain facts to suit their ideology of ‘Hindu Reassertion’. Apart
from this, academics with leftist orientation were blocked from putting forth
their views.[15]
When attempts intending to undermine the true spirit of learning and thereby
create fissiparous tendencies in the nation, how the nation relates itself to
it becomes important. Some developments that occurred in the subsequent periods
portray positive gesture from the side of the government.
Social
policies with renewed orientation marked the vision of the government.
Importantly the observations of Rajinder Sachar Committee and the
recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission both discussed about
‘inclusion’. The former committee identified the backwardness of Muslims in
almost every walk of social life including higher education, whereas the latter
expanded the horizon of disparities mainly delinking it from the conventional
understandings rooted in caste and religion covering income, gender, region and
place of residence[16].
The National Knowledge Commission discussed also about developing a deprivation
index and suggested creation of extensive and well-funded scholarship schemes.[17]
The accessibility of higher education limited to 8 percent of the total
population was planned to be expanded in such a volume that, any aspiring
student shall be admitted without considering his or her capacity to pay the
fees. The aim of these efforts was to stem the prevailing social inequality,
and thereby, reduce the economic gap among social groups.
The
National Knowledge Commission envisaged the setting up of 1500 universities
against the present dim figure of 350. At the minimum setting up of 50 central
universities was also part of the agenda. Central universities have
successfully reflected the vision of the nation insofar accommodating
diversities of various kinds and particularly based on language and region.
Every university in India
Conclusion
The
effects of the British policy towards education heavily impacted on the native
people whose minds were strongly ingrained with internal differences. It could
only be an ambitious expectation to ‘expurgate the intellect’in a shorter
duration from what was consciously sowed for more than one hundred years.
Therefore, in the present it appears like emergence of a paradoxical situation
wherein A.K. Ramanujan’s essay on Ramayana was opposed by a section of people
while the government open’s the Indian floor for foreign universities to
establish their centers. Such unclear situations are only common during a
period of transition. But what has to be noted above all is the fact that we
have arrived at a time period in which higher education has become an important
agenda and matter of socio-economic aspiration of everyman and woman. The
common debates on issues pertaining to higher education, their ability to pull
attraction of cross section of people and acquire national importance hint at
the healthy positioning of it. The determination and commitment of the
government to constantly increase the outlay for higher education is also an
indicator in that direction. The progresses that have been achieved and remain
to be achieved through higher education have parallels to speak about the level
of socio-political integration of the nation.
Presented in the capacity of sectional
president in a State Level Seminar conducted at V.V.Vanniya Perumal College
[1]D.P.Chattopadyaya, Madhamum, Samugamum(Tamil), (Chennai: New Century Book House, ___)
p.
[2]Ibid.
[3]It was believed that in the centuries
nearer to the birth of Christ two important centers of learning evolved. One
was located at Taxila and the other at Banaras .
The former was said to have produced scholarship on secular disciplines such as
medicine and politics. Arthasasthra and Charakasamhitha were the products of
the Taxilaschool.
[4] There emerged a clear division between
the dvijas meaning twice-borns andothers. The Sudra Varna and the untouchables
shall only listen to the recitation of the epics and denied access of any kind
to the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
[5]E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography 500BC to AD 2000, (New Delhi : Orient Longman, 2004) pp. 91-100;
Rene Descartes states that the existence of a person is confirmed by his
ability to think. To its contrast, Vico opines that one’s thinkingis
conditioned by how he believes. Thinking and belief are so very important for
human life. But in India of the contemporary period of these scholars – as D.D.
Kosambi rightly points out – the predominant thinking and beliefs were pivoted
around superstition than rationality.
[6]G. Duncan Mitchell (ed.), A New Dictionary of Sociology, (London:
Routledge, 1999) p.
[7]S. Viswanathan, Tamilology and a German Quest, Frontline____.
[9]E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, p. 91.
[11] Ibid.
[12]Ibid., p. 44.
[13]RomilaThapar, Knowledge and Education, Frontline, Vol.22, Issue 2, Jan.15-28,
2005.
[14]Scholars like Rajaram, Jha (not D.N.
Jha)and MakhanLal are only a few. Rajaram wanted to say that the authors of the
Indus Valley Civilization were the Aryans. Therefore he projected one of the
seals as having the figure of horse.
[15] For example, the ‘Towards Freedom’
project jointly worked by Sumit Sarkar and K.N. Panikker and supported by the
Indian Council of Historical research was blocked.
[16]Letter of Sam Pitroda addressed to the
Prime Minister dated 29-11-2006.
[17]Ibid.
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